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  • About Us
  • Blog
    • Gold
      • central bank rush to buy gold
        • Russia’s Gold Reserves Since 2009 Surge by 360% : Inside the Central Bank’s Strategic Move
        • China Buys Over 1,200 Tons of Gold Since 2009: A Decade-Long Strategic Rush
        • India’s Golden Surge: RBI Increases Gold Reserves by almost 500 Tonnes Since 2009 Amid Global Economic Shifts
        • Central Bank of Turkey Increased Gold Reserves by Over 100% from 2017 to 2024
      • gold price peaks
        • Catalyzing the 1980 Gold Price Explosion (the First Peak): From 1971 The Bretton Woods Fallout
        • Gold’s Second Peak: Understanding the 2011 Surge to $1,900 per Ounce —- Part 1 (2000-2005): “Early 2000s: The Build-Up to a Gold Bull Market
        • Gold’s Third Peak: Surging to $2,075 During the 2020 Pandemic Crisis
      • Gold Through the Ages: 100 Years of Transformation and Opportunity
        • Part 1: Gold in the Present Day
          • 1. The Modern Gold Market: Trends and Drivers
            • 2024 Gold in Review: The Year Gold Reached Unprecedented Peaks
            • Current Market Dynamics, Key Players, and Price Influencers
            • How gold performs as a hedge in uncertain times
          • 2. Gold’s Response to Economic Shocks
            • Gold’s role in global finance and portfolio strategies today
            • The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and recent geopolitical crises
          • 3. Gold and Technological Innovations
            • The rise of gold-backed cryptocurrencies and digital trading
            • Innovations in Gold Mining, Sustainability, and ESG Concerns
        • Part 2 : The Recent Past (1970s–2000s)
          • 4. The End of the Gold Standard (1971)
            • The Nixon Shock and its consequences for global markets
            • Gold transition to a free-floating asset
          • 5. The Bull Market of the 1980s
            • Gold record price of $850 per ounce in 1980
            • Inflation, oil crises, and geopolitical tensions as catalysts
          • 6. Gold’s Role in the Global Financial Crisis (2008)
            • Gold as a safe haven during the collapse of major financial institutions
            • Investor behavior and lessons from the crisis
        • Part 3 : The Early 20th Century
          • 7. The Gold Standard Era (1900–1933)
            • The Role of Gold in Stabilizing Currencies and Trade
            • The Great Depression and Roosevelt’s gold confiscation
          • 8. World War II and the Bretton Woods System
            • Gold’s pivotal role in rebuilding global economies
            • The establishment of the U.S. dollar as the dominant reserve currency
        • Part 4 : Looking Ahead
          • 9. The Future of Gold Investing
            • Potential Trends: Gold-Backed Digital Currencies, Decentralized Finance, and Shifting Demand
            • Gold role in emerging markets and central bank reserves
          • 10. Gold in a Changing World
            • The impact of climate change and sustainability concerns on gold mining
            • New opportunities for investors in a technologically advanced world
          • 11. A Timeless Asset: Lessons from Gold’s History
            • A Timeless Asset: Lessons from Gold’s History – Recap of gold transformation over the past century
            • Why gold will continue to be a cornerstone of wealth preservation
      • 1000 Years of Gold: The Medieval Origins of the Gold Standard
        • Part 1: The Early Foundations of Gold Money (500–1100 CE)
          • 1. The Fall of Rome & the Survival of Gold (476–700 CE)
            • The collapse of the Western Roman Empire (476 CE) and its impact on gold circulation
            • The Byzantine Solidus: The Gold Standard of Europe and the Mediterranean
          • 2. The Rise of the Islamic Gold Dinar (696 CE)
            • Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik introduces the Islamic gold dinar, creating a stable gold-based economy
            • The dinar influence on trade across the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Europe
          • 3. Gold in the Viking & Carolingian Empires (800–1000 CE)
            • Charlemagne monetary reforms and preference for silver over gold
            • Viking gold trade and hoards: how raiding and commerce spread gold across Europe
        • Part 2: The Medieval Gold Coinage Boom (1100–1500 CE)
          • 4. The Crusades & the Return of Gold (1095–1300 CE)
            • How the Crusades reopened trade routes and increased gold circulation in Europe
            • The influence of Middle Eastern gold coins on European monetary systems
          • 5. The Florin & Ducat: The Birth of European Gold Currencies (1252–1284 CE)
            • The Florin (1252, Florence) and Ducat (1284, Venice) as the first widely accepted European gold coins
            • How The Florin & Ducat became the global trade standard
          • 6. Mansa Musa’s Gold Pilgrimage & the African Gold Trade (1324 CE)
            • The legendary Mali Emperor Mansa Musa floods the market with gold during his pilgrimage to Mecca
            • How the West African gold trade supplied European and Islamic economies
          • 7. The Hundred Years’ War & the Shift in Gold Reserves (1337–1453 CE)
            • How France and England financed their wars using gold-backed debts
            • England’s introduction of the gold noble (1344 CE)
            • The Gold Noble (1344 CE): How England’s First Major Gold Coin Transformed Trade & Finance
        • Part 3: The Early Modern Gold Economy (1500–1800 CE)
          • 8. The Spanish Gold Boom: The New World’s Impact (1492–1600 CE)
            • Spain conquered the Aztec and Inca Empires and flooded Europe with gold
            • The rise of gold escudos and doubloons in global trade
          • 9. The First Paper Money Backed by Gold (1600–1700 CE)
            • The Dutch and British develop gold-backed banknotes
              • The Bank of Amsterdam (1609) and the First Gold-Backed Receipts
              • How Dutch merchants used gold-backed paper money in global trade
              • The role of gold-backed banknotes in financing European wars
            • The establishment of the Bank of England (1694 CE) and the role of gold reserves in stabilizing economies
              • Why England needed Bank of England: War debts and financial instability
              • How the Bank of England introduced gold-backed notes
              • The connection between the Bank of England and the rise of government bonds
            • The Role of Gold Reserves in Stabilizing Economies
              • How gold-backed banknotes improved trust in paper currency
              • The impact of gold reserves on inflation and economic stability
              • The first financial crises: Early risks of gold-backed banking
          • 10. The Birth of the Classical Gold Standard (1816 CE)
            • Britain formally adopts the gold standard, linking its currency to gold
            • How Classical Gold Standard spreads across the world in the 19th century
        • Part 4: The Rise & Fall of the Gold Standard (1800–1971 CE)
          • 11. The Global Adoption of the Gold Standard (1870s–1914 CE)
            • Germany, the U.S., and other nations adopt gold-backed currency
            • The gold standard reached its peak before World War I
          • 12. The Gold Standard’s Collapse (1914–1944 CE)
            • World War I forces countries to suspend gold convertibility
            • The failed attempt to restore the gold standard in the interwar years
            • The Bretton Woods System (1944 CE): gold is now tied to the U.S. dollar
          • 13. The Nixon Shock: The End of Gold-Backed Money (1971 CE)
            • President Richard Nixon ends U.S. dollar convertibility to gold
            • The world moves to fiat currencies, ending the traditional gold standard
        • Part 5: Gold in the Modern Financial System (1971–Present)
          • 14. Gold as a Reserve Asset: Central Banks & Gold Reserves
            • Why central banks hold gold despite fiat money dominance
            • How gold acts as a hedge against inflation and economic crises
          • 15. Gold in the Digital Age: Cryptocurrencies & Gold-Backed Assets
            • The emergence of gold-backed digital currencies
            • Is a return to a gold standard possible in the 21st century?
    • Silver
      • 500 Years of Silver Standard Systems: From Prosperity to Decline
        • Introduction – The Silver Thread Through History
          • Overview of the silver standard and its importance
          • A timeline-focused approach to exploring how silver shaped economies and societies over 500 years
          • Key questions: Why did silver rise to prominence? Why was it eventually abandoned?
        • Part I: The Early Foundations (15th-17th Century)
          • The Dawn of the Silver Standard: Pre-Modern Economies
            • Silver as currency in ancient civilizations (e.g., Greece, Rome, China)
            • The groundwork for the silver standard before the 1500s
          • The Silver Boom: Spanish Conquest and the Americas
            • Discovery of massive silver deposits at Potosí (Bolivia) and Zacatecas (Mexico)
            • How Spanish silver fueled European empires and global trade
          • China’s Silver Century: A Global Catalyst
            • The Ming Dynasty’s adoption of silver currency in the late 1500s
            • How Chinese demand drove the first truly global trade network
          • The Price Revolution: Wealth and Inflation in Europe
            • The economic consequences of silver influx into Europe
            • How the abundance of silver created inflation and disrupted feudal economies
        • Part II: The Silver-Gold Balance (18th-19th Century)
          • The Age of Bimetallism: Two Metals, One Economy
            • The rise of bimetallic systems, balancing silver and gold
            • Key examples: France Monetary Law of 1803 and the U.S. Coinage Act of 1792
          • Challenges of the Silver-Gold Ratio: 16 to 1 and Beyond
            • The fixed exchange ratio between silver and gold and its economic implications
            • Arbitrage, mining discoveries, and the struggle to maintain equilibrium
          • The Industrial Revolution: Silver in a Changing World
            • The impact of the Industrial Revolution on silver production and trade
            • Increased silver mining in the Americas and its effects on prices
        • Part III: The Decline of the Silver Standard (Late 19th Century)
          • The Crime of 1873: Silver’s Fall in America
            • The Coinage Act of 1873 and the demonetization of silver
            • The Free Silver Movement and political battles over currency standards
          • The Gold Standard Era: Europe’s Shift Away from Silver
            • Germany’s adoption of the gold standard in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War
            • How Britain, France, and other nations transitioned to gold-backed monetary systems
          • Silver’s Last Strongholds: Asia and Latin America
            • Why China, India, and Mexico remained on the silver standard longer
            • The collapse of silver prices and its effects on these economies
        • Part IV: The End of the Silver Standard (20th Century)
          • The Bretton Woods Agreement: The Global Gold Standard
            • Post-WWII monetary systems sidelined silver entirely
            • The rise of fiat currencies and the end of metal-based standards
          • The Silver Purchase Act of 1934 & China’s Abandonment of the Silver Standard
            • How U.S. silver policies triggered a monetary crisis in China
            • The final collapse of the silver standard as China shifted to fiat currency in 1935
          • Silver Becomes a Commodity: The 20th Century Transformation
            • How silver transitioned from money to industrial and investment uses
            • The Silver Purchase Act of 1934 and the final removal of silver from U.S. coins in 1965
        • Part V: Lessons and Legacy (21st Century and Beyond)
          • The Legacy of the Silver Standard
            • Silver played a defining role in global trade, inflation, and monetary policy
            • Comparisons to modern monetary challenges and alternative assets like cryptocurrencies
          • A Future in Silver: The White Metal’s Modern Role
            • Silver in technology, renewable energy, and as an investment
            • The enduring fascination with silver as a store of value and its symbolic power
        • Conclusion
          • 500 Years of Silver: From Prosperity to Decline
            • Reflection on silver historical importance and its rise and fall in global economies
            • How silver remains relevant in today’s world, despite losing its status as currency
    • Crude Oil
      • 1859: The Birth of Black Gold
        • Introduction – A World Before Oil
          • Briefly explore pre-1859 uses of oil (Mesopotamia, China, Native America)
          • The dominance of whale oil, coal, and wood
          • Set the stage for a global energy transformation
        • Chapter 1 – 1859: The Drake Well and the First Oil Rush
          • Edwin Drake’s successful well in Titusville, Pennsylvania
          • Early uses of crude oil: kerosene for lamps, industrial lubricants
  • Shop
  • Read Online
    • Gold Through the Ages: 100 Years of Transformation and Opportunity
    • 500 Years of Silver Standard Systems : From Prosperity to Decline
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Sandwich-Commodity&Energy
Sandwich-Commodity&Energy
  • About Us
  • Blog
    • Gold
      • central bank rush to buy gold
        • Russia’s Gold Reserves Since 2009 Surge by 360% : Inside the Central Bank’s Strategic Move
        • China Buys Over 1,200 Tons of Gold Since 2009: A Decade-Long Strategic Rush
        • India’s Golden Surge: RBI Increases Gold Reserves by almost 500 Tonnes Since 2009 Amid Global Economic Shifts
        • Central Bank of Turkey Increased Gold Reserves by Over 100% from 2017 to 2024
      • gold price peaks
        • Catalyzing the 1980 Gold Price Explosion (the First Peak): From 1971 The Bretton Woods Fallout
        • Gold’s Second Peak: Understanding the 2011 Surge to $1,900 per Ounce —- Part 1 (2000-2005): “Early 2000s: The Build-Up to a Gold Bull Market
        • Gold’s Third Peak: Surging to $2,075 During the 2020 Pandemic Crisis
      • Gold Through the Ages: 100 Years of Transformation and Opportunity
        • Part 1: Gold in the Present Day
          • 1. The Modern Gold Market: Trends and Drivers
            • 2024 Gold in Review: The Year Gold Reached Unprecedented Peaks
            • Current Market Dynamics, Key Players, and Price Influencers
            • How gold performs as a hedge in uncertain times
          • 2. Gold’s Response to Economic Shocks
            • Gold’s role in global finance and portfolio strategies today
            • The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and recent geopolitical crises
          • 3. Gold and Technological Innovations
            • The rise of gold-backed cryptocurrencies and digital trading
            • Innovations in Gold Mining, Sustainability, and ESG Concerns
        • Part 2 : The Recent Past (1970s–2000s)
          • 4. The End of the Gold Standard (1971)
            • The Nixon Shock and its consequences for global markets
            • Gold transition to a free-floating asset
          • 5. The Bull Market of the 1980s
            • Gold record price of $850 per ounce in 1980
            • Inflation, oil crises, and geopolitical tensions as catalysts
          • 6. Gold’s Role in the Global Financial Crisis (2008)
            • Gold as a safe haven during the collapse of major financial institutions
            • Investor behavior and lessons from the crisis
        • Part 3 : The Early 20th Century
          • 7. The Gold Standard Era (1900–1933)
            • The Role of Gold in Stabilizing Currencies and Trade
            • The Great Depression and Roosevelt’s gold confiscation
          • 8. World War II and the Bretton Woods System
            • Gold’s pivotal role in rebuilding global economies
            • The establishment of the U.S. dollar as the dominant reserve currency
        • Part 4 : Looking Ahead
          • 9. The Future of Gold Investing
            • Potential Trends: Gold-Backed Digital Currencies, Decentralized Finance, and Shifting Demand
            • Gold role in emerging markets and central bank reserves
          • 10. Gold in a Changing World
            • The impact of climate change and sustainability concerns on gold mining
            • New opportunities for investors in a technologically advanced world
          • 11. A Timeless Asset: Lessons from Gold’s History
            • A Timeless Asset: Lessons from Gold’s History – Recap of gold transformation over the past century
            • Why gold will continue to be a cornerstone of wealth preservation
      • 1000 Years of Gold: The Medieval Origins of the Gold Standard
        • Part 1: The Early Foundations of Gold Money (500–1100 CE)
          • 1. The Fall of Rome & the Survival of Gold (476–700 CE)
            • The collapse of the Western Roman Empire (476 CE) and its impact on gold circulation
            • The Byzantine Solidus: The Gold Standard of Europe and the Mediterranean
          • 2. The Rise of the Islamic Gold Dinar (696 CE)
            • Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik introduces the Islamic gold dinar, creating a stable gold-based economy
            • The dinar influence on trade across the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Europe
          • 3. Gold in the Viking & Carolingian Empires (800–1000 CE)
            • Charlemagne monetary reforms and preference for silver over gold
            • Viking gold trade and hoards: how raiding and commerce spread gold across Europe
        • Part 2: The Medieval Gold Coinage Boom (1100–1500 CE)
          • 4. The Crusades & the Return of Gold (1095–1300 CE)
            • How the Crusades reopened trade routes and increased gold circulation in Europe
            • The influence of Middle Eastern gold coins on European monetary systems
          • 5. The Florin & Ducat: The Birth of European Gold Currencies (1252–1284 CE)
            • The Florin (1252, Florence) and Ducat (1284, Venice) as the first widely accepted European gold coins
            • How The Florin & Ducat became the global trade standard
          • 6. Mansa Musa’s Gold Pilgrimage & the African Gold Trade (1324 CE)
            • The legendary Mali Emperor Mansa Musa floods the market with gold during his pilgrimage to Mecca
            • How the West African gold trade supplied European and Islamic economies
          • 7. The Hundred Years’ War & the Shift in Gold Reserves (1337–1453 CE)
            • How France and England financed their wars using gold-backed debts
            • England’s introduction of the gold noble (1344 CE)
            • The Gold Noble (1344 CE): How England’s First Major Gold Coin Transformed Trade & Finance
        • Part 3: The Early Modern Gold Economy (1500–1800 CE)
          • 8. The Spanish Gold Boom: The New World’s Impact (1492–1600 CE)
            • Spain conquered the Aztec and Inca Empires and flooded Europe with gold
            • The rise of gold escudos and doubloons in global trade
          • 9. The First Paper Money Backed by Gold (1600–1700 CE)
            • The Dutch and British develop gold-backed banknotes
              • The Bank of Amsterdam (1609) and the First Gold-Backed Receipts
              • How Dutch merchants used gold-backed paper money in global trade
              • The role of gold-backed banknotes in financing European wars
            • The establishment of the Bank of England (1694 CE) and the role of gold reserves in stabilizing economies
              • Why England needed Bank of England: War debts and financial instability
              • How the Bank of England introduced gold-backed notes
              • The connection between the Bank of England and the rise of government bonds
            • The Role of Gold Reserves in Stabilizing Economies
              • How gold-backed banknotes improved trust in paper currency
              • The impact of gold reserves on inflation and economic stability
              • The first financial crises: Early risks of gold-backed banking
          • 10. The Birth of the Classical Gold Standard (1816 CE)
            • Britain formally adopts the gold standard, linking its currency to gold
            • How Classical Gold Standard spreads across the world in the 19th century
        • Part 4: The Rise & Fall of the Gold Standard (1800–1971 CE)
          • 11. The Global Adoption of the Gold Standard (1870s–1914 CE)
            • Germany, the U.S., and other nations adopt gold-backed currency
            • The gold standard reached its peak before World War I
          • 12. The Gold Standard’s Collapse (1914–1944 CE)
            • World War I forces countries to suspend gold convertibility
            • The failed attempt to restore the gold standard in the interwar years
            • The Bretton Woods System (1944 CE): gold is now tied to the U.S. dollar
          • 13. The Nixon Shock: The End of Gold-Backed Money (1971 CE)
            • President Richard Nixon ends U.S. dollar convertibility to gold
            • The world moves to fiat currencies, ending the traditional gold standard
        • Part 5: Gold in the Modern Financial System (1971–Present)
          • 14. Gold as a Reserve Asset: Central Banks & Gold Reserves
            • Why central banks hold gold despite fiat money dominance
            • How gold acts as a hedge against inflation and economic crises
          • 15. Gold in the Digital Age: Cryptocurrencies & Gold-Backed Assets
            • The emergence of gold-backed digital currencies
            • Is a return to a gold standard possible in the 21st century?
    • Silver
      • 500 Years of Silver Standard Systems: From Prosperity to Decline
        • Introduction – The Silver Thread Through History
          • Overview of the silver standard and its importance
          • A timeline-focused approach to exploring how silver shaped economies and societies over 500 years
          • Key questions: Why did silver rise to prominence? Why was it eventually abandoned?
        • Part I: The Early Foundations (15th-17th Century)
          • The Dawn of the Silver Standard: Pre-Modern Economies
            • Silver as currency in ancient civilizations (e.g., Greece, Rome, China)
            • The groundwork for the silver standard before the 1500s
          • The Silver Boom: Spanish Conquest and the Americas
            • Discovery of massive silver deposits at Potosí (Bolivia) and Zacatecas (Mexico)
            • How Spanish silver fueled European empires and global trade
          • China’s Silver Century: A Global Catalyst
            • The Ming Dynasty’s adoption of silver currency in the late 1500s
            • How Chinese demand drove the first truly global trade network
          • The Price Revolution: Wealth and Inflation in Europe
            • The economic consequences of silver influx into Europe
            • How the abundance of silver created inflation and disrupted feudal economies
        • Part II: The Silver-Gold Balance (18th-19th Century)
          • The Age of Bimetallism: Two Metals, One Economy
            • The rise of bimetallic systems, balancing silver and gold
            • Key examples: France Monetary Law of 1803 and the U.S. Coinage Act of 1792
          • Challenges of the Silver-Gold Ratio: 16 to 1 and Beyond
            • The fixed exchange ratio between silver and gold and its economic implications
            • Arbitrage, mining discoveries, and the struggle to maintain equilibrium
          • The Industrial Revolution: Silver in a Changing World
            • The impact of the Industrial Revolution on silver production and trade
            • Increased silver mining in the Americas and its effects on prices
        • Part III: The Decline of the Silver Standard (Late 19th Century)
          • The Crime of 1873: Silver’s Fall in America
            • The Coinage Act of 1873 and the demonetization of silver
            • The Free Silver Movement and political battles over currency standards
          • The Gold Standard Era: Europe’s Shift Away from Silver
            • Germany’s adoption of the gold standard in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War
            • How Britain, France, and other nations transitioned to gold-backed monetary systems
          • Silver’s Last Strongholds: Asia and Latin America
            • Why China, India, and Mexico remained on the silver standard longer
            • The collapse of silver prices and its effects on these economies
        • Part IV: The End of the Silver Standard (20th Century)
          • The Bretton Woods Agreement: The Global Gold Standard
            • Post-WWII monetary systems sidelined silver entirely
            • The rise of fiat currencies and the end of metal-based standards
          • The Silver Purchase Act of 1934 & China’s Abandonment of the Silver Standard
            • How U.S. silver policies triggered a monetary crisis in China
            • The final collapse of the silver standard as China shifted to fiat currency in 1935
          • Silver Becomes a Commodity: The 20th Century Transformation
            • How silver transitioned from money to industrial and investment uses
            • The Silver Purchase Act of 1934 and the final removal of silver from U.S. coins in 1965
        • Part V: Lessons and Legacy (21st Century and Beyond)
          • The Legacy of the Silver Standard
            • Silver played a defining role in global trade, inflation, and monetary policy
            • Comparisons to modern monetary challenges and alternative assets like cryptocurrencies
          • A Future in Silver: The White Metal’s Modern Role
            • Silver in technology, renewable energy, and as an investment
            • The enduring fascination with silver as a store of value and its symbolic power
        • Conclusion
          • 500 Years of Silver: From Prosperity to Decline
            • Reflection on silver historical importance and its rise and fall in global economies
            • How silver remains relevant in today’s world, despite losing its status as currency
    • Crude Oil
      • 1859: The Birth of Black Gold
        • Introduction – A World Before Oil
          • Briefly explore pre-1859 uses of oil (Mesopotamia, China, Native America)
          • The dominance of whale oil, coal, and wood
          • Set the stage for a global energy transformation
        • Chapter 1 – 1859: The Drake Well and the First Oil Rush
          • Edwin Drake’s successful well in Titusville, Pennsylvania
          • Early uses of crude oil: kerosene for lamps, industrial lubricants
  • Shop
  • Read Online
    • Gold Through the Ages: 100 Years of Transformation and Opportunity
    • 500 Years of Silver Standard Systems : From Prosperity to Decline
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Sandwich-Commodity&Energy
Sandwich-Commodity&Energy
  • gold price peaks

Catalyzing the 1980 Gold Price Explosion (the First Peak): From 1971 The Bretton Woods Fallout

Catalyzing the 1980 Gold Price Explosion, the dismantling of the Bretton Woods system in 1971 set off a chain reaction of economic and geopolitical events that culminated in gold reaching historic highs.

  • Ming-Chih
  • June 21, 2024
  • central bank rush to buy gold

Central Bank of Turkey Increased Gold Reserves by Over 100% from 2017 to 2024

Gold Reserves of the Central Bank of Turkey (2017-2024)

  • Ming-Chih
  • June 12, 2024
  • Uncategorized

India’s Golden Surge: RBI Increases Gold Reserves by almost 500 Tonnes Since 2009 Amid Global Economic Shifts

Here is a detailed year-by-year account of the Reserve Bank of India's (RBI) gold reserves from 2008 to 2024:

  • Ming-Chih
  • June 6, 2024
  • Uncategorized

China Buys Over 1,200 Tons of Gold Since 2009: A Decade-Long Strategic Rush

Here is a detailed year-by-year summary of China's gold reserves from 2009 to 2024:

  • Ming-Chih
  • May 27, 2024
  • Uncategorized

Russia’s Gold Reserves Since 2009 Surge by 360% : Inside the Central Bank’s Strategic Move

Here is the data for Russia's gold reserves from 2009 to 2024:

  • Ming-Chih
  • May 21, 2024
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